Tag

nutrition

Browsing

By Pauline Zaldonis

Upon launching New York City’s citywide school garden initiative, Grow to Learn, Mayor Bloomberg declared, “nothing is more important than the health and wellbeing of our children. That’s why our Administration is committed to helping young New Yorkers understand how eating fresh food and preparing their own meals can help them lead longer, healthier lives.”[1] In New York City and across the country, government agencies and nonprofit organizations are framing school gardens as a tool for improving the health and wellbeing of schoolchildren. In California, the Department of Education started its Garden in Every School initiative in 1995, identifying gardening as a way to increase student preference for fresh fruits and vegetables.[2] Nationally, school gardens have received the support of First Lady Michelle Obama through her Let’s Move campaign, which promotes gardening as a way for children to get physical activity while learning how healthy food is produced.[3]

While it is clear that school gardens seek to address health and educational issues in schools, it is less clear whether school gardens can be used to address social justice issues in the school food arena. The food justice framework, which recognizes the importance of structural inequalities and patterns of oppression that characterize the food system, calls for solutions to food system problems that go beyond food access and education.[4] The increasing popularity of school gardens begs the question, how can we use gardens to promote greater justice in school cafeterias?

In the literature on the impact of school gardens, researchers and program evaluators typically praise school gardens for their educational and health benefits. Questions of food justice rarely arise, despite the fact that the nutritional quality of school food is generally poor and unquestionably a food justice issue. With an estimated 32% of youth between the ages of 2 and 19 considered overweight or obese,[5] an interest in the effect school meals on childhood obesity has been growing over the last decade. School food plays a large role in the development of children’s eating habits. What is on the menu in school cafeterias can lead to positive or negative health outcomes.

Fresh fruits and vegetables are hard to come by in many cafeterias across the United States today. Since processed foods tend to be cheaper and require less preparation than fresh fruits and vegetables, most school cafeterias in the United States are dominated by processed foods.[6] Students who participate in the free and reduced meals program are typically low-income students who rely on school meals to provide them with one and sometimes two meals each day. Consequently, the abundance of processed foods served in school cafeterias disproportionately harms low-income students. The West Harlem Environmental Action, Inc. (or, WE ACT for Environmental Justice), a community-based organization working towards racial and environmental justice in New York City, calls the lack of healthy school food options an issue of structural racism, claiming that the quality, safety, and nutrition of school meals has an especially large impact on students of color who are more likely to participate in the program.[7]

Despite the social justice issues surrounding school food, school garden advocates tend to focus on the educational and health outcomes associated with gardening, as if growing food and the consumption of food are unrelated. Indeed, school gardens have been linked to a variety of educational and health outcomes, for example, improved performance on standardized tests in reading, writing, math, social studies, and science.[8] They also provide children with greater exposure to complex natural experiences, which many believe to be important to childhood development.[9] Furthermore, student school gardening activities have been linked to higher nutritional knowledge, more positive attitudes about food and the environment, and an increase in the consumption of fruits and vegetables.[10]

Programs like New York City’s Grow to Learn program or California’s Garden in Every School initiative share the ambitious goal of providing every student with the opportunity to participate in school gardening. While the academic and certain health benefits associated with school gardens are documented, such outcomes are not necessarily synonymous with the promotion of food justice and they do not inherently address the root causes of problems like the rising childhood obesity or the proliferation of processed foods in school cafeterias. Even the few school gardens that address food access by providing enough produce to be incorporated into school meals do not necessarily address the systemic problems in the food system. By suggesting that food system inequalities can be addressed simply by educating people about how to make better dietary choices, the deeper problems that create inequalities in the food system are overlooked and obscured.[11]

A school’s ability to maintain a garden large enough to generate produce to be used in the cafeteria is contingent on its ability to access both financial and human resources, which is typically more of a challenge for schools in low-income areas. Many schools find it daunting to start and sustain even a small-scale educational garden, citing a limited staff time and lack of funds as the primary barriers. Students’ access to garden-based learning opportunities in their schools is dependent on the ability of their school administration’s ability to gain the necessary resources to build and maintain their garden.

Despite the goals of school garden organizations to create “a sustainable school garden in every public school,” realistically some schools will not get the benefits of a garden.[12] Simply addressing nutrition or incorporating gardening into traditional academic subjects does not increase food justice. Rather, school gardening initiatives seeking to increase social justice in the food system must extend their focus beyond nutrition and academics and perhaps focus on what is actually being served to students in their very own cafeterias.

The New York City-based nonprofit organization, Harlem Grown, is an example of a school garden initiative that goes beyond classroom-based nutrition. Harlem Grown works with local public schools to create greater access to nature and green spaces, engages community members in nutritional and outdoor activities, and increases access to healthy foods while focusing on issues of food justice.[13] Currently Harlem Grown works with PS 197 in Harlem, where it has developed a school garden and has created a vegetable-based diet in the school its cafeteria. Local restaurants purchase a portion of the produce from the garden while the rest of it is given to the school and made available for community members.[14] Harlem Grown uses school gardens to revitalize abandoned community spaces and to create sites that provide both educational opportunities and fresh produce. By taking food justice issues into consideration, the needs of the wider community are met as well.

With the increasing popularity and governmental support of school gardens, there is an opportunity for schools to engage their students in projects that both provide nutritional education while addressing food justice issues. In their essay on farm-to-school programs, Patricia Allen and Julie Guthman recognize the potential for schools to be the site for challenging the structural inequalities in the food system. They argue that the public school system has the potential to be a platform for innovative school food programs that combine the practical value of universal access to fresh food combined with educational and nutritional knowledge.[15] While most school gardens do not currently address issues of food justice, there is a huge potential for advocates to use school gardens as a platform for promoting food justice alongside the nutritional and educational benefits that are already widely recognized.

Pauline Zaldonis is a graduate student at The New School where she is pursuing her Master’s degree in Urban Policy and Management with a focus on food and the environment.


[1] “Message from the Mayor.” Grow to Learn. n.d. 13 May 2013. http://www.growtolearn.org/view/messagesfromnyc.

[2] “School Garden Program Overview.” California Department of Education. n.d. Web. 18 April 2013.http://www.cde.ca.gov/ls/nu/he/gardenoverview.asp.

[3] “School Garden Checklist.” Let’s Move. n.d. Web. 18 April 2013.http://www.letsmove.gov/school-garden-checklist.

[4] Allen, Patricia. “Mining for justice in the food system: perceptions, practices, and possibilities.” Agriculture and Human Values 25:157-161, 158.

[5] Perlman, Sharon E. et al. “A Menu for Health: Changes to New York City School Food, 2001-2011.” Journal of School Health; October 2012, Vol. 82, No. 10., 484-485, 484.

[6] “Why Processed Food is Cheaper than Healthier Options.” NPR. 1 March 2013. Web. http://www.npr.org/2013/03/01/173217143/why-process-food-is-cheaper-than-healthier-options.

[7] “Northern Manhattan Food Justice Initiative,” WE ACT for Environmental Justice, Accessed 3 May 2013, http://www.weact.org/Programs/EnvironmentalHealthCBPR/NorthernManhattanFoodJusticeInitiative/tabid/206/Default.aspx.

[8] Lieberman, Gerald A. and Linda L. Hoody. “Closing the Achievement Gap: Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for Learning.” State Education and Environment Roundtable, 1998.

[9] Blair, Dorothy. “The Child in the Garden: An Evaluative Review of the Benefits of School Gardening.” The Journal of Environmental Education. Winter 2009, Vol. 40, No. 2, 15-38, 17.

[10] Atkins, Dr. Robert and Veronica. “An Evaluation of the School Lunch Initiative.” Center for Weight and Health, University of California. Berkeley, September 2010, 26-32.

[11] Allen, Patricia and Julie Guthman. “Farm-to-School”: Neoliberalization from the Ground Up.” Agriculture and Human Values (2006) 23:401–415, 412.

[12] “Mission Statement.” Grow to Learn. n.d. 18 April 2013.http://www.growtolearn.org/view/mission_statement.

[13] “About Us.” Harlem Grown. n.d. 13 May 2013. http://www.harlemgrown.org/about-us/.

[14] Laperruque, Emma “Kids Yield Crops: In the Garden with Harlem Grown,” Marcus Samuelsson, 12 July 2012. Web. 16 April 2013.http://www.marcussamuelsson.com/food-stories-2/kids-yield-crops-in-the-garden-with-harlem-grown.

[15] Allen, Patricia and Julie Guthman. “Farm-to-School”: Neoliberalization from the Ground Up.” Agriculture and Human Values (2006) 23:401–415, 412.

by Margarett Waterbury

During the holidays last year, I was employed as a social worker at a nonprofit agency in a rural county in Oregon. It was not a profession I was trained for, nor was it what I ever imagined myself doing, but I would have taken nearly any job during those first grim years of the recession. The agency worked with survivors of domestic violence, which meant that the majority of our clients were young women, and most had no money. While violence is class blind, those who came to us for help usually had nowhere else to turn.

Chronically underfunded and massively overstretched, like most domestic violence agencies our office was staffed by a combination of very young, very idealistic women, the ink on our college diplomas barely dry; and a smaller cadre of older supervisors, well-meaning but lacking either the training or the natural inclination to effectively lead other people. “Restructuring” happened whenever a grant ran out, which was all the time. Morale and salaries were low, turnover was high, and employees were always looking for another job or complaining about how broke they were. For a while, my office was in a hallway where I met with clients to discuss their recent rape or assault next to a busy copy machine as colleagues walked through on their way to the kitchen. A hard-fought upgrade bought me a windowless interior room furnished with donated furniture and flickering fluorescent lighting. I brought toilet paper from home and kept it in my desk drawer as we usually ran out before the end of the week.

But I loved my clients. While I could offer little more than a receptive listener and a donated oral hygiene kit (thanks, American Dental Association), witnessing the resilience of women who had experienced profound traumas changed me deeply. I have long since come to terms with the fact that social work is not my calling – not only did I not enjoy it, but I don’t even think I was very good at it – but I am indebted to a weak economy for teaching me another way to think about class, gender, race, privilege, everything – even food.

I grew up in the coastal Pacific Northwest surrounded by what some would view as obscene abundance: sparklingly fresh salmon, halibut, and black cod; wild chanterelles, porcinis, and morels foraged in the woods behind my house; cold and crotchety Dungeness crabs so close to shore you could wade for them; forests of tart thimbleberries and elusive huckleberries. My Italian mother grew heirloom tomatoes, damson plums, and loganberries in the back yard; my grandfather made his own wine and fussed over his pepper plants. As a child, my favorite after school snack was a steamed artichoke.  Food was a direct connection to family and home, a constant and sustaining pleasure.

Like all good progressive foodies, I lamented the lack of education that kept others from enjoying a healthy diet. Friends and I had long conversations about our low-wage grocery bills and what could be done on a food stamp budget, which invariably ended with exclamations about how inexpensive and easy it is to prepare lentils. Implicit in all of this was the unsaid assumption that people who were poor and fat had it tough, but if they just tried harder, it could be different.

Each year at Thanksgiving, the agency I worked for gave out holiday food baskets to all of our clients. These were donated by a local women’s club and, like all of the resources at our disposal, left much to be desired. They came in three sizes: small, medium, and large, and each one contained some permutation of a frozen Butterball turkey, boxed stuffing mix, powdered mashed potatoes, gravy packets, canned cranberry sauce, either a 12-pack or a 2-liter bottle of soda, packaged rolls, disposable aluminum roasting pans, and a frozen Marie Callender pie (choice of pumpkin or apple crumble). Some also contained a box of satsumas, and a few lucky baskets got a bag of real russet potatoes, the kind that come out of the ground.

Despite its dreadful cultural baggage, Thanksgiving is my favorite holiday of the year. I am a skilled and enthusiastic cook, and my color-coded recipe-filled excel spreadsheet is always finished weeks in advance. I start testing recipes for Brussels sprouts with pancetta or mashed purple Peruvian potatoes in September – early September. These Thanksgiving baskets appalled me.  The idea of using a boxed stuffing mix was more than anathema. It was inconceivable. To me it would be better to have nothing, no dressing at all, than a carton of those dusty crumbs. Boxed stuffing seemed an emblem of desperate sadness, a white flag of surrender to the world.

As part of being a bad social worker, I had clear favorites among the women I worked with, and Rebecca topped the list, mostly because we were the same age. A former foster child from another state who never landed with a permanent family, she had spent her teens in and out of a series of group homes. The father of her oldest two kids, who were three and four, was currently serving a long prison sentence; the father of her youngest, just an infant, had hit the four-year-old in the face so hard he left a hand-shaped bruise, which is what landed them all in foster care in the first place. He hit Rebecca too sometimes, though unlike most of my clients, I rarely worried that he would kill her.

Rebecca was also funny, relentlessly positive, and heartbreakingly optimistic about how she would someday live with her children as a family again.  Every time we met, we talked about what she could do to get her kids back. I knew her chances were slim, but she was so determined that I sometimes felt myself caught up alongside her, wondering where the crib would go, whether the kids would like the shared playground in her complex, which other kids they would be friends with.

Rebecca was a resident in a housing program we operated. It was my job to “case manage” her, whatever that means. It usually consisted of watching Disney movies together in her shady apartment while gossiping about her child welfare caseworker. Occasionally I drove her to court dates, food pantries, and supervised visits with her kids, which took place in a special room equipped with one-way glass and a small basket of toys worn dingy with desperate use.

Though she lived alone and would likely be spending the holiday that way, Rebecca received a small basket. She planned to prepare the meal at home and share it with her kids at their scheduled visit several days before Thanksgiving. I hand selected what I thought were the best ingredients. A turkey that hadn’t melted too much as the baskets sat in an empty hallway. A small bag of real potatoes. Oranges. Butter. Some sparkling cider. A pumpkin pie, which she had requested. Every kind of tinfoil pan, paper towels, and plastic cups that were available, because I knew she only had a few dishes. And, because she was my favorite, an organic kabocha squash from the farmer’s market that I picked out just for her, though I lied and told her everybody got one.

I also told Rebecca that I would help her prepare the meal. I knew she didn’t know how to cook a turkey, and I was reasonably sure she would have no idea what to do with the squash. I arrived at her apartment with my handbag full of salt grinders, sprigs of fresh sage and rosemary from my garden, Turkish bay leaves, and heads of garlic. In fear that she would not have a kitchen knife of any kind, I brought my Shun chef’s knife wrapped in a dishcloth, though I left it in the car out of some vague concern that such a sharp object was somehow inappropriate.

Rebecca knew quite a bit about nutrition. Like me, she tried vocally to avoid sugar, and like me, she often failed. I noted the new forest of Arizona iced tea bottles on her coffee table every time I visited. She knew she should eat vegetables, and often used her food stamp card at the green grocer at the end of her street. She drank skim milk for her bones, and bought Flintstone vitamins. But there were some major holes. She told me about how she tried to make mashed potatoes once, but she would never do it again because it took so long for the whole potato to get soft in the boiling water. Her boyfriend’s mother, concerned about Rebecca’s health, bought her salmon filets that just went smelly in the refrigerator. It wasn’t that Rebecca didn’t like salmon; she just had no idea how to cook it.

We unwrapped the mostly defrosted turkey in her tiny sink. Rebecca eeeewed when I pulled out the giblet packet. I gave her a line about using the whole animal, but inwardly I squirmed right along with her. We tossed it out. Instead of working from a recipe, I wanted to give Rebecca a sense of how to cook in a general, improvisational way, the way I cooked. We melted some butter in the microwave and mixed in some chopped rosemary and sage. I smeared it on the turkey, then Rebecca plopped the bird in a flimsy aluminum roasting pan and put it in the oven, which we had forgotten to preheat. She didn’t have a timer, so I made a mental note to call her in three hours to remind her to take it out of the oven.

Then we hacked the squash into pieces with a flimsy bread knife, blade bowing weakly as it sawed. At home, I would have done something elaborate: used it to fill ravioli topped with fried sage leaves, or pureed it into a coconut curry soup with mountains of cilantro and ginger. But I was determined to keep things simple, replicable, so we just cut it into quarters and put it in a roasting pan covered in aluminum foil. I told Rebecca that, when in doubt, bake something at 350 with some butter and salt, and that will usually make it edible.

After I had clocked out, I called Rebecca to remind her to take the turkey out of the oven. The next day she called to tell me her visit with her kids went well. I was overjoyed. In my mind, the children sat politely at the table drinking sparkling cider out of full and foaming cups as Rebecca carved the turkey, somehow ballooned to three times its puny size, whole and steaming, crisp skin crackling appetizingly under her knife. They passed slices of pumpkin pie to one another lovingly; they lingered after the meal. I knew her visit was not permitted to last more than 60 minutes, but I decided not to think about it.

That year I hosted Thanksgiving at my house. So many friends and family came that we had to sit on lawn chairs. We drank endless bottles of local wine and ate free-range turkey with chanterelle mushroom gravy and stuffing made with apples from my mother’s yard. It was, predictably, almost tediously delicious; satisfying and nourishing in all possible ways. At dinner I talked about my work, effusing about the importance of nutrition education and how wonderful our local food producers were and my exciting new ideas about changing the food stamp system. We all agreed with one another, flush with camaraderie and Pinot Noir.

I continued to see Rebecca weekly after Thanksgiving. For a while, we pursued many of the same goals with some success. Her visits got longer and longer, and eventually she was allowed to take her children home, first for an afternoon, then overnight, then for the whole weekend. I began to believe that she may have been right all along, that she really would be reunited with her family.

Then, one Saturday night, she hit her daughter in the face. It meant that she would never get her children back. She told me that she was just so overwhelmed. Her children had all been yelling at once, her daughter had started screaming, and she didn’t know what else to do.

Not long after, she found out she was pregnant. Her caseworker was very clear that they would take the infant at birth, but Rebecca was determined to keep the baby at any cost. Diligently, she kept all of her prenatal appointments, taking the bus an hour each way. She dedicated herself to learning even more about nutrition: the importance of adequate folic acid on fetal nervous system development, calculating how much protein she needed based on her increasing body weight. The Arizona iced teas continued to accumulate on the side table, but she was eating some yogurt for breakfast.

Before Rebecca gave birth to her fourth child, I took another job: an easier, better paying position at a consulting firm where I would work in a LEED-certified building and my employer would contribute to my retirement account. I felt a small amount of guilt leaving the nonprofit world, though I knew it was the wrong place for me. When I told Rebecca, she didn’t seem surprised: “A new worker again. I sure go through a lot of them.”

The next spring, I heard that Rebecca had her baby, and that child welfare took it straight from the delivery room to foster care. My heart broke for Rebecca, as it continues to do. It also breaks for her children, all four of them, who like her will probably never know the unmitigated joy of digging more butter clams than their little brother, or the serene connection that comes from sitting silently on a counter watching their grandmother make dumplings, or the almost unbearably intense sense of safety and belonging holidays bring to other families. Their memories of their mother, if they have them, will mostly be set in a room with one mirrored wall where all the furniture is child-sized, their mom a nervous, well-meaning giant in a place she clearly does not belong.

This year, I will go to my mother’s for Thanksgiving. It will be utterly lovely, like most occasions I get to spend with my family. As I get older, the importance of Christmas, Easter, even Halloween has fallen away; still, I believe in the worth of this holiday because it is the only day in the United States when saying “I am happy with what I have” is not a radical act. This year, I am grateful that my life allows me the luxury of finding joy in experiences beyond the sensual, that I have additional pleasures available to me than a sweet tea from the corner market. This year, I will think of Rebecca and hope that she is able to find some happiness, whatever its form. It is tempting to think she might bake a squash, but I know it is more likely that she will eat Papa John’s pizza while watching Snow White under a thrift store blanket. And it is impossible for me to judge or blame her, because I now understand that sometimes, knowing is not enough.

Margarett Waterbury is a writer and editor living and working in Portland, Oregon. She enjoys indoor succulents, bicycling, and a good tiki cocktail. Even though it rains a lot in the northwest, she does not own a single umbrella.